The Alhambra (/ælˈhæmbrə/; Spanish: [aˈlambɾa]; Arabic: الْحَمْرَاء [ʔælħæmˈɾˠɑːʔ], Al-Ḥamrā, lit. "The Red One"),[Note 1][Note 2] the complete Arabic form of which was Qalat Al-Hamra,[Note 3] is a palace and fortress complex located in Granada, Andalusia, Spain. It was originally constructed as a small fortress in AD 889 on the remains of Roman fortifications, and then largely ignored until its ruins were renovated and rebuilt in the mid-13th century by the Arab emir Mohammed ben Al-Ahmar of the Emirate of Granada, who built its current palace and walls. It was converted into a royal palace in 1333 by Yusuf I, Sultan of Granada.[1] After the conclusion of the Christian Reconquista in 1492, the site became the Royal Court of Ferdinand and Isabella (where Christopher Columbus received royal endorsement for his expedition), and the palaces were partially altered in the Renaissance style. In 1526 Charles I & V commissioned a new Renaissance palace better befitting the Holy Roman Emperor in the revolutionary Mannerist style influenced by Humanist philosophy in direct juxtaposition with the Nasrid Andalusian architecture, but which was ultimately never completed due to Morisco rebellions in Granada.
Alhambra's latest flowering of Islamic palaces were built for the last Muslim emirs in Spain during the decline of the Nasrid dynasty who were increasingly subject to the Christian Kings of Castile. After being allowed to fall into disrepair for centuries, the buildings occupied by squatters, Alhambra was rediscovered following the defeat of Napoleon, who had conducted retaliatory destruction of the site. The rediscoverers were first British intellectuals and then other north European Romantic travelers. It is now one of Spain's major tourist attractions, exhibiting the country's most significant and well-known Islamic architecture, together with 16th-century and later Christian building and garden interventions. The Alhambra is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and the inspiration for many songs and stories.[2]
Moorish poets described it as "a pearl set in emeralds," an allusion to the colour of its buildings and the woods around them.[3] The palace complex was designed with the mountainous site in mind and many forms of technology were considered. The park (Alameda de la Alhambra), which is overgrown with wildflowers and grass in the spring, was planted by the Moors with roses, oranges, and myrtles; its most characteristic feature, however, is the dense wood of English elms brought by the Duke of Wellington in 1812. The park has a multitude of nightingales and is usually filled with the sound of running water from several fountains and cascades. These are supplied through a conduit 8 km (5.0 mi) long, which is connected with the Darro at the monastery of Jesus del Valle above Granada.[4]
Despite long neglect, willful vandalism, and some ill-judged restoration, the Alhambra endures as an atypical example of Muslim art in its final European stages, relatively uninfluenced by the direct Byzantine influences found in the Mezquita of Córdoba. The majority of the palace buildings are quadrangular in plan, with all the rooms opening on to a central court, and the whole reached its present size simply by the gradual addition of new quadrangles, designed on the same principle, though varying in dimensions, and connected with each other by smaller rooms and passages. Alhambra was extended by the different Muslim rulers who lived in the complex. However, each new section that was added followed the consistent theme of "paradise on earth". Column arcades, fountains with running water, and reflecting pools were used to add to the aesthetic and functional complexity. In every case, the exterior was left plain and austere. Sun and wind were freely admitted. Blue, red, and a golden yellow, all somewhat faded through lapse of time and exposure, are the colors chiefly employed.[4]
The decoration consists for the upper part of the walls, as a rule, of Arabic inscriptions—mostly poems by Ibn Zamrak and others praising the palace—that are manipulated into geometrical patterns with vegetal background set onto an arabesque setting ("Ataurique"). Much of this ornament is carved stucco (plaster) rather than stone. Tile mosaics ("alicatado"), with complicated mathematical patterns ("tracería", most precisely "lacería"), are largely used as panelling for the lower part. Similar designs are displayed on wooden ceilings (Alfarje).[4]Muqarnas are the main elements for vaulting with stucco, and some of the most accomplished dome examples of this kind are in the Court of the Lions halls. The palace complex is designed in the Nasrid style, the last blooming of Islamic Art in the Iberian Peninsula, that had a great influence on the Maghreb to the present day, and on contemporary Mudejar Art, which is characteristic of western elements reinterpreted into Islamic forms and widely popular during the Reconquista in Spain.
La Alhambra es una ciudad palatina andalusí situada en Granada, en la comunidad autónoma de Andalucía, España. Consiste en un conjunto de palacios, jardines y fortaleza (alcázar o al-qasr القصر) que albergaba una verdadera ciudadela dentro de la propia ciudad de Granada, que servía como alojamiento al monarca y a la corte del Reino nazarí de Granada. Su verdadero atractivo, como en otras obras musulmanas de la época, no solo radica en los interiores, cuya decoración está entre las cumbres del arte andalusí, sino también en su localización y adaptación, generando un paisaje nuevo pero totalmente integrado con la naturaleza preexistente. En 2016 fue el segundo monumento más visitado de España, por detrás del Templo Expiatorio de la Sagrada Familia de Barcelona,2 recibiendo la cifra histórica de 2 615 188 visitantes.
A
photograph or
photo is an
image created by
light falling on a light-sensitive surface, usually
photographic film or an electronic medium such as a
CCD or a
CMOS chip. Most photographs are created using a
camera, which uses a
lens to focus the scene´s visible wavelengths of light into a reproduction of what the human
eye would see. The process and practice of creating photographs is called
photography. The word "photograph" was coined in 1839 by
Sir John Herschel and is based on the
Greek φῶς (
phos), meaning "light", and γραφή (
graphê), meaning "drawing, writing", together meaning "drawing with light".
[1]
La photographie1 est une technique qui permet de créer des images par l´action de la lumière. La photographie désigne aussi l´image obtenue.
Le terme de photographie désigne également la branche des arts graphiques qui utilise cette technique : c´est l´« écriture de la lumière ».
La photographie a su tirer parti de nombreuses innovations technologiques et techniques dans les domaines de l´optique, de la chimie, de la mécanique, de l´électricité, de l´électronique et de l´informatique.
Les deux phénomènes nécessaires à l´obtention d´images photographiques étaient pour certains connus depuis longtemps et explicité dans le Traité d´optique. Les réflexions d´Aristote et les travaux du père de l´optique moderne Ibn al-Haytham, ont permis de mettre la réalité en boîte ; il suffit de percer un « petit trou » (sténopé) dans une chambre noire (en latin : camera obscura) pour voir apparaître une image inversée dans le fond blanc de la boîte. D´autre part, les alchimistes savaient que la lumière noircissait le chlorure d´argent. Vers 1780 Jacques Charles, plus connu pour son invention de l´aérostat gonflé à l´hydrogène, parvint à figer, mais de façon fugitive, une silhouette obtenue par le procédé de la chambre noire sur du papier imbibé de chlorure d´argent. Thomas Wedgwood (1771-1805) fit des expériences analogues avec le nitrate d´argent ; il en publia un mémoire en 1802. De son côté John Herschel en 1819 décrit les propriétés de l´hyposulfite de sodium qui deviendra le fixateur.
Joseph Nicéphore Niépce, un inventeur de Chalon-sur-Saône, associe ces trois procédés pour fixer des images (de qualité moyenne) sur des plaques d´étain recouvertes de bitume de Judée, sorte de goudron naturel qui possède la propriété de durcir à la lumière (1826 ou 1827) ; la première photographie représente une aile de sa propriété à Saint-Loup-de-Varennes en Saône-et-Loire. Nicéphore meurt en 1833 et Louis Daguerre poursuit l´amélioration du procédé. En découvrant le principe du développement de l´image latente, Daguerre trouve le moyen de raccourcir le temps de pose à quelques dizaines de minutes. En 1839, il promeut son invention auprès du savant et député François Arago, qui lui accorde son soutien.
Ainsi, la date conventionnelle de l´invention de la photographie est 1839, c´est la date de la présentation par Arago à l´Académie des sciences de l´« invention » de Daguerre, le daguerréotype. C´est en fait une amélioration de l´invention de Niépce.
Een foto is een afbeelding op een plat vlak vervaardigd door middel van fotografie. Een foto geeft relaties weer van objecten, voorwerpen, mensen of dieren uit de werkelijke wereld zoals gezien door de lens van een camera gedurende een (meestal korte) tijdperiode.[1] De naam fotografie werd voor het eerst genoemd door John Herschel, een Engels astronoom, en is gebaseerd op het Griekse φώς (phos, "licht") en γραφίς (graphis, "pen, kwast"). In de volksmond wordt een foto ook wel een kiekje genoemd, genoemd naar Israël Kiek.
In vergelijking met andere uitdrukkingsvormen als pictogrammen, diagrammen en kaarten, maar ook tekst is dit wel de meest zuivere benadering (maar niet per definitie: beste benadering) van de werkelijkheid, als de digitale nabewerking en manipulatie uitblijft. Daarmee dragen foto´s maximaal bij aan een juiste communicatie van het overbrengen van een bepaalde gedachte over (een deel van) de werkelijkheid. Deze zienswijze wordt verder toegelicht in visualisatie.
Kenmerkend is de directe relatie van de afbeelding met de realiteit, maar dit maakt van een foto daarom nog geen objectieve weergave van die realiteit. Een foto is altijd een manipulatie van de realiteit, zowel door het standpunt (perspectief), het kader, de begeleidende tekst, het moment en het materiaal dat de fotograaf gebruikt om de foto te maken, alswel door ingrijpen op chemische of digitale wijze in de fotografische afbeelding door de fotograaf of anderen.
